Personality

What is Personality?

‘The sum total of an individuals characteristics which make him or her unique’ 

(Gill, 2000)

Whilst it is difficult to truly identify what personality is (Cashmore, 2008) the general consensus is that it's a combination of hereditary traits which make us unique.  It is these characteristics which determine how a person will react in any given situation, which in this case is a sporting environment. 

Trait theorists believe that personality is determined by inherited characteristics, and therefore that our behaviour is genetically programmed (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  For example, a person may naturally display calm, thoughtful and reliable characteristics which would consistently reflect in their behaviour, and determine their behaviour in all situations.

This is depicted as:

 B=F(P) (Behaviour is a function of personality)

(Pearson Schools, 2008)

In 1990 Girdano presented the Narrow Band Approach – a trait theory.  Girdano believed that individuals can be split into two groups based upon their personality: Type A and Type B. 

Type A	Type B
Competitive	Non-Competitive
Likes Control	Does not Enjoy Control
Strong Desire to Succeed	Un-ambitious
Suffers Stress	Relaxes Easily
Works Fast	Works Slower

(Pearson Schools, 2008; Gill, 2014)

One of the strengths of this theory is that whilst looking at the characteristics above, we all know people that we are able to say have either Type A or Type B personality, so it does work in reality.  However, the approach is too simplistic and athletes do not simply fall into one category or the other, they may lie anywhere in the middle of the spectrum.

Another trait approach was presented by Eyesenck, who produced an Inventory which measures personality across two dimensions: Introvert – Extrovert, and Stable – Neurotic, therefore a personality can be placed into one of four quadrants shown on the diagram below (Gill, 2014; Weinberg & Gould, 2011).

(Image taken from Gill, 2014)

Once again, when looking at certain athletes (or sports) we are to place them in one of the four quadrants above.  For example, we would usually say that a golfer is introverted/emotionally stable as they are generally controlled, careful and thoughtful.  Another strength of the theory is that it’s not as simplistic as Girdano’s theory, as it considers more than one dimension.  It is, however, still a relatively basic approach and works on the assumption that an individual’s behaviour will not be influenced by the environment, which we know from personal experience is not always the case (Pearson Schools, 2008).

Freud believed that our behaviour is a combined result of constantly changing restraints, rather than specific personality traits, and this is modelled in his Psychodynamic Approach.  It places emphasis on what Freud calls our instinctive drive (ID), which are our basic instincts over which we have no conscious control, and how they conflict with the more conscious parts of our personality (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  Our Ego is the conscious link between our ID, and how we react to fulfil that desire, but it may be inhibited by our Superego, which is our moral conscience which will tell us what that behaviour is appropriate.   It is an interaction of these dynamic processes which produces our behaviour in a sporting environment (Gadsdon, 2001; Cashmore, 2008).

Weinberg & Gould (2011) state that although this method is not widely used, predominantly because of the difficulty in testing and measuring the aspects involved, it highlights that not all aspects of behaviour are under conscious control.  However, another weakness of Freud’s approach is that it focuses on behaviour being a result of internal factors, and doesn’t consider how the environment affects our behaviour.

Bandura Social Learning Theory

The state approach to personality argues that our behaviour is a product of the environment which is based upon Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (1963).

B=P(E) (Behaviour is a product of the environment)

(Pearson Schools, 2008)

Bandura stated that we learn our behaviour through observation (modelling) and feedback (social reinforcement), and therefore that it is the environment that determines our behaviour (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).

In contrast to the trait theories displayed above, the social learning theory puts the emphasis solely on the environment.   Although environmental restraints may change an athlete’s behaviour, this is not always the case as personal beliefs and characteristics sometimes overrule the requirements of the situation.  For example, when watching throwing in track and field you often hear coaches telling their athletes that they need to be ‘more aggressive’, but it isn’t a disposition which people are able to turn on and off dependent on the environment. 

Hollander's Theory of Personality (1976)

Hollander produced a model which splits personality into three layers: psychological core, typical responses, and role related behaviour .  The psychological core is thought to be the ‘real you’ – the most enduring aspect of your personality, typical responses is based upon the social environment and previous experiences which you’ve learnt and stored, and finally role related behaviour which is the aspect of your personality most susceptible to change dependent upon the environment (Pearson Schools, 2004; Weinberg & Gould, 2011; Gill, 2014). For example, a footballer might typically be a calm and controlled person (psychological core) but during a game of football he may become aggressive especially when trying to gain possession of the ball due to the nature of the game (role related behaviour).

(Image taken from Gill, 2014)

As the theory blends an enduring aspect of personality (psychological core) and the environment (role related behaviour) it is an interactionist theory.  The interactional approach is the most widely accepted approach to behaviour, as we all know from experience that we act differently in certain situations, but we still have underlying beliefs and values which are always reflected in our behaviour.

Personality is an influential factor in all of the concepts that will be discussed in this blog, and it can be used by psychologists to predict an athlete’s behaviour and therefore prepare them for a specific situation.

References:

Cashmore, E. (2008) Sport and Exercise Psychology: The Key Concepts (2^nd Ed.) Routledge: London.

Gadsdon, S. (2001) Psychology and Sport. Heinemann: Oxford.

Gill, A. (2014) Personality and Sport [PPT] FdSc Sport Coaching, Chesterfield College, February 2014.

Gill, D. (2000) Psychological dynamics of Sport and Exercise. Human Kinetics: Illinois.

Pearson Schools (2008) Chapter 8: Sport Psychology [online] Available from: http://www.pearsonschoolsandfecolleges.co.uk/Secondary/PhysicalEducationAndSport/16plus/OCRALevelPE2008/Samples/A2PEStudentBookSamplePages/PEforOCR(A2)SBCH08.pdf [Accessed 12th March 2014]

Weinberg, R. & Gould, D. (2011) Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (5^th Edition). Human Kinetics: Leeds.

A Conclusion - The Link Between the Concepts (Motivation, Arousal, Anxiety and Stress)

At the elite level of sport there is often no difference between the skill level of participants, but their ability to handle arousal, anxiety and stress (Jarvis, 1999), therefore it’s important that we recognise how these concepts interact with one another and affect performance, as it may either make or break an elite performer.  As stated by Saklofshe & Zeidner (1995) although anxiety and arousal are not identical they are strongly related, and as such the link between anxiety and performance is attributed to the link between anxiety and arousal.  For example, high levels of anxiety are linked to high levels of arousal. We know that anxiety is the negative emotional state which presents itself when we become aroused (Weinberg & Gould 2011), so some psychologists may argue that you can’t have anxiety without arousal.  Similarly, Jarvis (1999) states stress is the process whereby an individual perceives a threat and responds with a series of psychological and physiological changes including increased arousal and the experience of anxiety, so stress as a process only occurs when we are aroused and feel anxious about the imbalance between the demands of the environment and our ability.  It is clear that these three concepts are closely linked, and athletes need to be aroused to suffer either anxiety or stress.  How they perceive these feelings then affects how motivated they are to tackle a situation.

All three concepts (arousal, anxiety and stress) will have an impact on an individual’s level of motivation.  Many psychologists would argue that there is a direct link between motivation and arousal, with arousal level often being used as an indicator of motivation (Fogiel, 2003)). However, as we have already mentioned, how arousal affects motivation is very much reliant upon the athletes perception of that arousal.  For example, a runner who hasn’t run their personal best all season may want to quit, or they may train harder over the winter with the view of coming out stronger next season.  If an athlete has a need to avoid failure personality, and they feel anxious in competitive or evaluative environments, they are likely to become demotivated.  On the other hand, an athlete who enjoys competition is likely to be actively seek challenging situations which increase their level of arousal, because they are motivated to be successful.  It’s key that athletes and coaches recognise feelings of anxiety so they can employ coping mechanisms that will help the athlete to become more motivated. 

In conclusion, all they key concepts of sport psychology are closely tied together and interact with one another to form a resultant behaviour.  However, the most important thing to remember is that the impact of motivation, arousal, anxiety and stress are specific to the individual, and it is their perception over these feelings which determine how they will react.

References:

Fogiel, M. (2003) The Psychology Problem Solver (3^rd Edition) Research and Education Association: New Jersey.

Jarvis, M. (1999) Sport Psychology.Routledge: London.

Saklofske, D. & Zeidner, M. (ed) (1995) International Handbook of Personality and Intelligence. Plenum Press: New York.

Weinberg, R. & Gould, D (2011) Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology. (5^th Edition). Human Kinetics: Leeds.

Stress

What is Stress?

At some point or other we have all said, or heard others say, that we are ‘stressed’.  We talk about stress as if it is any form of discomfort in which we feel we can’t cope, but in actuality it is a process which is explained by Cashmore (2008) as a:

 ‘Constraining or propelling force or pressure that causes a significant change in a system’

A certain stimuli may cause stress for one athlete but not for another, and this is due to the individuals perception of the demands being placed on them and if they feel they are capable of coping with these demands.  This is modelled in a diagram taken from Weinberg & Gould (2011), which is displayed below. 

(Taken from Gill, 2014)

Stage 1 - The Environmental Demand

Essentially this is what the environment is asking of you.  It is may be either a physiological (e.g. you are about to run 100m) or a psychological demand (e.g. pressure to score a penalty).

Stage 2 - Perception of the Demand

Each person views each situation differently.  For example, one athlete may be confident in running 100m because he thinks he can win and the crowd are a motivator, but another may feel he isn’t good enough to run and feels pressure from the crowd.  This is what makes the athlete think there is an imbalance between the task and his capability, and this is heavily influenced by whether the athlete has a low or high trait anxiety (highly trait anxious athletes are more likely to perceive the situation as imbalanced). 

Stage 3 - Stress Response

This is the athlete’s physiological and psychological response to the situation, and is dependant upon the previous stage.  If the performer is highly trait anxious, then state anxiety will increase and they experience symptoms of cognitive and somatic anxiety (e.g., becoming apprehensive and increased heart rate).

Stage 4 – Behavioural Consequences

After going through the previous stages of the model, the athlete will display a resultant behaviour.  It’s key to highlight at this point that the anxiety felt by the performer may be facilitative or debilitative (see blog post on arousal), so even if they do feel threatened, their performance may still improve.  How the athlete copes in the situation and whether they are successful or not affects how they will perceive the task in the future, and so the cycle continues.

(Weinberg & Gould, 2011)

This cycle is important because it allows us to identify what stressors are placed on the performer, but more importantly how the performer deals with them, and their resultant behaviour.  This way you can develop some form of stress management.

What causes Stress?

There are thousands of different sources of stress, and many different psychologists have worked on classifying these sources into categories, but they can best be divided into situational and personal (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  The importance of the event is the first situational factor identified by Weinberg & Gould (2011) which leads to stress.  When considering this it’s important to remember that while an event may not seem significant, its importance will differ from competitor to competitor, and the more important a competitor deems the situation to be the higher their stress levels.  The second situational factor which most contributes to stress is uncertainty of the impending event (Hodge, 2004).  If the performer doesn’t know what to expect (e.g., they don’t know the starting line-up really close to the game start time, or it’s their first time competing in the event) then their stress levels will be high.  It doesn’t have to uncertainty relating to the sporting situations specifically though, it could be any uncertainty they’re feeling in other aspects of their life at that moment. 

The primary cause of stress is trait anxiety, as highly trait anxious individuals are more likely to deem a situation as threatening and therefore feel stress.  Hodge (2004) believes that self-esteem is another factors which brings about stress as athletes who don’t feel confident about a situation (e.g. it’s a new experience, or they have low self-confidence) are more likely to experience state anxiety.  Therefore, coaches should seek to build their athletes self-esteem as a way of coping with anxiety.  The final major personal source of stress is social physique anxiety, which is when people become anxious when they feel their physique (body) is being evaluated (Weinberg & Gould, 2007).  Athletes with high social physique anxiety are more likely to experience stress and cognitive anxiety relating to their body; specifically in situations where their fitness is being evaluated (for example, the first time they are on the starting line-up of a football match after coming back from an injury).  A recent survey found that 12.9% of the exercise participants surveyed exercise in private, whilst 9.7% fear being judged by others, and 11 % felt embarrassed or self-conscious due to body image (Brudzynski & Ebben, 2010).  This has a negative impact on performance, as it may cause some athletes to avoid the situation completely, which was evidenced in the survey identified above.

Coping Mechanisms

Athletes who often become stressed in sporting situations will be able to identify why this happens and develop what is called a coping mechanism. Lazarus & Folkman (1984) define coping as ‘a process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person’.  More simply, it is changing the way you think and act to help you manage with stressors that are being placed on you which you find too difficult. Weinberg & Gould (2007) outline five key guidelines for reducing stress in an athlete:

1. Recognise signs of increased arousal and anxiety.

2. Identify the optimal combination of arousal related emotions needed for best performance.

3. Recognise how personal and situational factors interact to influence arousal, anxiety and performance.

4. Tailor coaching and instructional practices to meet the needs of individuals in order to reduce stress and anxiety.

5. Develop confidence in performers to help them cope with increased stress.

It’s key that athletes seek support from others (for example, a coach) when they feel stress may have a negative impact on their performance, but by adopting all of these strategies an athlete will be able to focus on the goal, stop panicking and in turn reduce the anxiety and stress you feel into a positive performance effector.

Optimising Sports Performance

So far, we’ve focused on how stressors placed on the athlete have a negative effect on performance when they perceive the environment to be imbalanced.  But some athletes actually experience eustress, which is a positive reaction to stressors placed on them improving their performance (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  For this reason, some athletes actively seek stressful environments as they know it will improve their performance.  Anxiety and stress is necessary for athletes to reach their peak performance, as it means they are both physiologically and psychologically activated, and alert, giving them a competitive edge.  Athletes need to find a balance that suits them, where the amount of anxiety and stress is not detrimental to their performance, but is enough to engage and motivate them to complete the task successfully.

References:

Brudzynski, L & Ebben, W. (2010) Body Image as  a Motivator and Barrier to Exercise Participation, International Journal of Exercise Science [e-journal], 3(1).  Available through: http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1172&context=ijes [Accessed 17^th March 2014]

Cashmore, E. (2008) Sport and Exercise Psychology: The Key Concepts (2^nd Ed.) Routledge: London.

Gill, A. (2014) Anxiety/Arousal/Stress Relationship [Lecture] FdSc Sport Coaching, Chesterfield College, March 2014.

Hodge, K. (2004) The Complete Guide to Sport Motivation. A&C Black: London.

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. Springer: New York.

Weinberg, R. & Gould, D. (2011) Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (5^th Edition). Human Kinetics: Leeds.

Arousal & Anxiety

What are arousal and anxiety and how are they linked?

When preparing ourselves to do an activity (whether that be preparing a meal or running a marathon), our body will be in a specific state of alertness, although this will vary dependent on the activity and how motivated we are to do it – this is known as arousal.  Weinberg & Gould (2011) define arousal as:

 ‘a general physiological and psychological activation, varying on a continuum to from deep sleep to excitement’

It is simply a pattern of activities, both physiological and cognitive, that prepares us for a task (Cashmore, 2008).  Considering that arousal changes as the environment does, the type of task and its requirements may mean that our level of arousal is not ideal and it may affect our ability to perform that task efficiently.  It is important to identify at this point that arousal is not automatically associated with either positive or negative events – it may be due to either.

However, when we do feel negative emotions which are associated with arousal we are said to be suffering from anxiety.  Weinberg & Gould (2011) state that:

'Anxiety is a negative emotional state in which feelings of nervousness, worry, and apprehension are associated with activation or arousal of the body'

These unpleasant changes result from a stimulus, but it is subjective and presents itself when an athlete perceives that stimulus to be threatening.  There are two components of anxiety: cognitive and somatic, and relate directly to physiological and psychological activation.  Cognitive anxiety is concerned with the though process (e.g. worry and fear), whereas somatic anxiety is the sympathetic nervous systems response to stress (e.g. increased heart rate and sweating) (Martens et al, 1990).

Trait and State

As with all the other psychological concepts we have discussed, we can distinguish between two types of anxiety: trait and state.  Trait anxiety is a behavioural disposition that predisposes a person to perceive a wide range of objectively non dangerous circumstances as threatening, and state anxiety is the moment to moment changes in feelings of nervousness, worry and apprehension (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  State anxiety is reduced once the stressor has been removed (e.g. an athlete may have high state anxiety before running 100m, but it goes after), whereas trait anxiety is long lasting.  Performers who are highly trait anxious are also more susceptible to state anxiety, compared to those who have low state anxiety – which is known as competitive trait anxiety.

Theories of Arousal/Anxiety

Initially, it was thought that arousal had a linear relationship with performance, and as one increased so did the other.  This is known as the Drive Theory, which was initially researched by Hull (1943) and further developed by Spence and Spence (1966).  This means that as arousal increases so does the performer’s dominant response or behaviour, leading to an improved performance (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).

(Image taken from: http://www.teachpe.com/sports_psychology/motivation.php

[Accessed 17th March 2014])

The drive theory might be viable in situations when the performers is at the autonomous stage of learning or the skill is simple, but in other instances the dominant response (or learned behaviour) may be incorrect and this will lead to a decrease in performance (Hays, 2006).  However, even the most experienced performers still don’t display this behaviour, because if they did they would continue to excel, which isn’t the case.  We also know from our own experiences as performers that we sometimes ‘choke’ no matter how high our arousal levels are, and performance ceases, and so this theory is too simplistic as arousal isn’t the only factor which effects performance.

An alternative approach to the drive theory (one which is preferred by many psychologists) in the Inverted-U Hypothesis presented by Yerkes and Dodson (1908) (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  Similar to the drive theory it states that at low levels of arousal performance will be below average, but it will increase as arousal does.  The difference however, is that performance only increases to a certain point (the optimal zone of arousal) where performance is at its best.  After this point, even though arousal continues to increase performance will decrease, symmetrical to the graphic at which it improved. 

(Image taken from: http://www.teachpe.com/sports_psychology/motivation.php [Accessed 17th March 2014])

Even though this theory gives a generally accepted framework for under, optimum and over-arousal, this one curve is too structured and simplistic to use for all tasks (e.g. discrete and gross skills).  Different athletes experience optimal arousal at different points on the curve, and this is usually dependent upon the task and the skill movement required.

Because of these concerns psychologists started to look at different zones of optimal arousal dependent on the task and athlete, and Hanin (1980, 1986, 1997) developed an approach termed Individualized Zones of Optimal Functioning (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  It looks at three different athletes who different zones of optimal functioning (IZOF): low, moderate and high. If their levels of arousal fall either side of this optimum arousal they are thought to be ‘out of the zone’, and the quality of their performance will decrease.  For example, a golfer needs low levels of arousal when putting because it’s a discrete skill which requires precise movement, therefore they will have a low IZOF.  On the other hand, a boxer needs to be highly aroused because they use gross body movement, and so their zone of optimal functioning will be high.  The difference between these models and the previous ones is that there is no optimal point, but an optimal zone of performance and it considers that this optimal zone may not always be at the midpoint of arousal (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).

(Image taken from:http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/sport-psychology-midterm-exam-part-1/deck/7727603

 [Accessed 17th March 2014])

Another theory which has been derived from the Inverted-U Hypothesis is Hardy’s Catastrophe Theory (1990, 1996).  The Catastrophe Theory looks not only at arousal, but also at cognitive anxiety, and how these two concepts interact to effect performance.  Hardy believes that when cognitive anxiety is low, arousal and performance are related as the Yerkes & Dodson (1908) state above, except that performance never reaches the high peak Yerkes and Dodson believe it does (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  However, when cognitive anxiety is high, performance increases with arousal to an optimal point, but once it passes this point there is a catastrophic drop in performance.  This is displayed in the diagram below.

(Image taken from: http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/sport-psychology-midterm-exam-part-1/deck/7727603 [Accessed 17th March 2014])

It is thought that after this catastrophic decrease, the athlete is able to recover and re-join the curve, although they may find it difficult and so they might not be able to (e.g. when a footballer comes back after an injury, but they don’t play to their full ability again because of the negative emotion they associate with the game and the fear of being injured again).  To re-join the curve, the athlete needs to completely relax both psychologically and physiologically and gain control over their negative thoughts and arousal.

Weinberg & Gould (2011) believe that the key information to take from this theory however is that an individual is likely to perform better when they are experiencing high state anxiety (which can be seen on the model above).  Hardy’s theory also progresses from the idea that performance is dependent upon only one other variable, but it is dependent upon the interaction of a number of variables. 

The final theory of arousal is the Reversal Theory by Kerr (1999).  It is slightly different from the other theories, in that Kerr believes arousal only affects performance dependent on how the performer perceives this arousal.  Performers with low arousal may perceive this with either negative or positive feelings: boredom or relaxation, similarly performers with high levels arousal may also perceive this either positively or negatively: excitement or anxiety.  As the diagram shows below, performers who perceive their arousal levels as pleasant perform at a higher level than those who perceive arousal as a negative emotion (Kerr, 1999).

(Image taken from: http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/exam-1/deck/2323765

 [Accessed 17th March 2014])

Whilst few tests have been done on the Reversal Theory, and so it remains unscientifically proven, Weinberg & Gould (2011) believe it has given two key contributions to the understanding of arousal and performance.  Firstly, Kerr believes athletes perceive arousal differently, and this perception determines how arousal affects their performance. Secondly, the theory introduces the idea that an athlete’s perception of the environment may change (moving along the continuum of pleasant to unpleasant), and in turn their level of performance may alter.

Attentional Narrowing

As your levels of arousal increase, you experience a phenomenon known as attentional narrowing.  In most environments you have a broad attentional field – meaning you are not concentrating on anything in particular and pick up a lot of cues from the environment, but this would not be ideal in a competitive situation because you would take in irrelevant cues of information.  However, as you become aroused, your attentional field narrows slightly meaning you are concentrating on the relevant cues (e.g. focussing on the players in the game and blocking out the crowd) (Eyesenck, 2013). But as your arousal continues to increase your attentional field continues to narrow and it may become so narrow it begins to debilitate your performance (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  For example, you may be watching one player in particular and it leads you to miss relevant cues from others players but pick up irrelevant cues from the player you are watching.  So by finding your optimum level of arousal you should also find optimal attentional field, which will enable you to perform more efficiently. 

Arousal/Anxiety and Performance

Considering that arousal is a physiological and psychological activation (Gill, 2000) we should expect that it will have an effect on our ability to produce a movement or skill – whether that is for cognitive or somatic reasons (e.g. increasing heart and muscle tension would hinder the performance of a fine motor skill such as darts). For arousal to have the most beneficial effect on performance, the athlete must be at their optimal point (or zone) of arousal, and performance will deteriorate either side of this point.  The optimal point of arousal is highly specific to both the individual and the task, so a coach must look at how different emotions interact and affect that athlete, in order to produce their best performance.  Performance usually declines when athletes become over aroused or anxious, because the somatic and cognitive symptoms hinder them from performing the skill efficiently - as they would when they’re relaxed.  Cashmore (2008) explains it as an optimal level of arousal, with the aim of the athlete being able to calibrate that level of arousal whilst remaining composed.  It’s important to remember however that anxiety is not always debilitative, it very much depends on how the performer views the arousal/anxiety.  If the athlete is confident and feels in control of the situation, then anxiety may become facilitative to performance as it helps them remain focussed, and for that reason the athlete needs to employ coping mechanisms (see the post on stress) which allow them to use anxiety constructively.

References:

Cashmore, E. (2008) Sport and Exercise Psychology: The Key Concepts (2^nd Ed.) Routledge: London.

Eyesenck, M. W. (1992) Anxiety: The Cognitive Perspective. Psychology Press: Oxon.

Gill, D. (2000) Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise.  Human Kinetics: Illinois.

Hays, R. (2006) The Science of Learning: A Systems Theory Approach. Brown Walker Press: Florida.

Kerr, J. H. (1999) Motivation and Emotion in Sport: Reversal Theory. Psychology Press: Oxon.

Martens, R., Vealey, R.S., & Burton, D. (1990) Competitive Anxiety in Sport. Human Kinetics: Illinois.

„McConnell, A. (2012) Exam 1 [online] Available from: http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/exam-1/deck/2323765 [Accessed 17th March 2014]

Teach PE (n.d.) Motivation [online] Available from:  http://www.teachpe.com/sports_psychology/motivation.php [Accessed 17th March 2014]

„Teach PE (n.d.) Stress and Anxiety [online] Available from: http://www.teachpe.com/sports_psychology/anxiety.php[Accessed 17th March 2014] 

Weinberg, R. & Gould, D (2011) Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology. (5^th Edition). Human Kinetics: Leeds.

Motivation

What is Motivation?

This post is going to look at motivation within sport and exercise, and how and why different individuals are motivated to partake.  Firstly, we must define what is meant by the term motivation. 

‘Hypothetical construct used to describe the internal and/or external forces that produce initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behaviour’

 (Vallerand & Thrill, 1993)

Whilst it is difficult to define such a complex concept, the definition above by Vallerand & Thrill successfully identifies what we should expect to see from motivated behaviour.  This is supported by Green who interprets motivation as forces that initiate, direct and sustain behaviour (1996).  Motivation directs our behaviour towards achieving an end goal, producing a link between action and outcome (Cashmore, 2008).

We have already established that most aspects of psychology take three views: trait, state and interactional, and the same can be said for motivation.  The participant centred approach (trait) takes the view that motivated behaviour is due individual characteristics, and therefore an athlete has the predisposition to show motivation in any situation.  The situation centred approach, however states that motivation is determined solely by the environment (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  For example, an athlete may be highly motivated in a competitive sporting environment, but not in a classroom.   Whilst we know that some individuals do excel in certain areas, and therefore they’re more motivated to be successful, it’s clear that both the trait and state approach are too simplistic and for that reason are not endorsed by psychologists.  The diagram below models the interactional view, which is the most widely endorsed approach, and it shows how motivation is thought to be a result of the interaction between personal and situational factors. 

Breaking down the definition from Vallerand & Thrill, motivation is a combination of internal and external forces.  In other words, it’s a combination of the drive from within yourself to be successful, and external factors.  Factors affecting motivation can therefore be separated into two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is the drive from your inner self to be successful, because of the enjoyment or pride you feel when performing or improving your skill level, whilst extrinsic motivation is gained from rewards offered by an external source, and could be either tangible or intangible (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  A tangible reward is something physical, for example a trophy or cash reward.  An intangible reward could be praise from, or fulfilling the expectations, of a coach or family member.  It is important to note that rewards do reinforce positive behaviour, but tangible rewards should be limited as the performer will become less interested in performing the skill or sport, and perform just for the reward.

Achievement Motivation

The importance of motivation in sport can be linked directly to an athlete’s desire to be successful, as without that desire the chances of success are seriously reduced – and this is known as achievement motivation.  Atkinson described an achievement situation as ‘one in which someone expects their performance to be evaluated’ (Gadsdon, 2001), which in sport we commonly call a competition.  Achievement motivation is described by Gill (2000) as 

‘a person’s orientations to strive for task success, persist in the face of failure, and experience pride in accomplishments’

Achievement motivation is more closely examined by McClelland & Atkinson in their Need Achievement Theory, which considers five factors in order to identify an athlete as either having a need to achieve, or a need to avoid failure (Beashel & Taylor, 1996).  Gill (2000) defines the motive to achieve success as the capacity to experience pride in accomplishments, and the motive to avoid failure as the capacity to experience shame in failure. 

Athletes with a high need to achieve enjoy competitive and challenging situations, and even though that means the rate of success is low, they are more motivated to be successful and don’t fear being evaluated.  They also place a higher value on success and therefore strive to reach it.  Those with a need to avoid failure personality are not as motivated to challenge themselves, and enter situations where they have a low responsibility and there is either a low chance of them failing, or certainty that they will fail (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  For example, if a 100m school champion competed against a national standard runner, it is almost certain they will lose, but they will not blamed as the cause of failure.   They also tend to focus on the negative feelings associated with failure (such as shame and embarrassment) rather than considering the other outcome of being successful, therefore focussing on avoiding failure as pose to achieving.  Athletes with a high need achievement are more likely to be successful because they actively seek situations in which they want to be successful, unlike those with a low need achievement motivation, who tend to avoid competitive situations completely.

The model below shows how the five components of Need Achievement Theory interact to produce a resultant behaviour.

Need Achievement Theory

(Image taken from Gill, 2014)

Competence Motivation Theory

A theory which attributes intrinsic factors to high motivation is the Competence Motivation Theory by Harter (1978).  Firstly, competence is explained by White as the ability to interact effectively with the environment (Rubin & Rose-Krasnor, 1992).  Harter states that competence motivation is dependent on how the performer views the situations - For example, is it interesting, do they find it challenging, do they think they’ll be successful?  These factors contribute to the performers perceived competence and control over the task, and they are drawn to situations where they feel a high competence and have self-belief in mastery of the task (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).

Competence Motivation Theory

(Image taken from Gill, 2014)

Success at a task creates a positive feeling of enjoyment and pride which reinforces your competence, and the pleasure gained from this success increases the performers levels of intrinsic motivation.  In contrast, if the performer doesn’t feel confident in mastering the task, they feel negative feelings such as anxiety or shame, which will decrease their motivation to attempt the task.  Therefore, competence motivation theory states perceived confidence and competence of the pending task affects your motivation to complete it.

Attribution Theory

The Attribution Theory, which was popularised by Weiner (1985, 1986), attributes a cause to an event, which in this case is success or failure.  Weinberg & Gould (2011) state that every explanation of success or failure can be placed in one of three categories: stability, locus of causality, and locus of control.  The outcome of either success or failure, and the category is which the attribution sits will have an effect on expectations of future success, and therefore levels of motivation. 

Attribution Theory

(Image taken from Gill, 2014)

The table above explains the results of different attributions – If success is attributed to a stable factor then your motivation would be high as you could expect to achieve it again, on the flipside if failure is attributed to a stable factor (example, low ability) you will be less motivated.  Alternatively, if you attribute success to an unstable factor (e.g., luck) then you shouldn’t expect it to happen again and motivation may decrease.  If success is attributed to an internal cause (e.g., your ability) or to something that you perceive to be in your control, then you are going to feel pride and there will be an increased expectation of success in the future.  On the other hand if you attribute failure to these factors, you may feel shame and there will be decreased levels of motivation. 

Achievement Goal Theory

It is widely thought that individuals can be motivated by the setting of goals – not just in sport but across all areas.  Achievement Goal theory concerns two different goals: outcome and task. 

If an athlete is said to be task goal orientated they are striving to improve relative to their own abilities over a short period of time.  In comparison, when working towards an outcome goal you are competing against others, and is usually a long term target (Weinberg & Gould, 2011). For example, winning an Olympic gold medal is an outcome goal as you will have the best performance compared to other athletes, but this is not something you achieve overnight, you will probably have worked towards many smaller goals to improve the level of your performance – these are task specific goals

This is an example of an elite athlete striving to complete both types of goal, but many athletes will only be working towards one or the other, which is dependent on their reasons for partaking and their level of motivation.   Task orientated performers are often more successful because the outcome isn’t dependant on factors out of their control (for example, other competitors) making them more persistent and motivated.  They also have a lower fear of failure because they are competing against themselves.

Achievement Goal Theory

(Image taken from Gill, 2014)

You must be motivated to reach the goals you set, which we assume are going to lead to a more efficient performance, therefore making you more successful.  Some people show a consistent desire to achieve highly across all areas, whereas some are only motivated to be successful dependent upon the area, or the environment therefore achievement goal theory is an interactionist theory.

References:

Beashel, P. & Taylor, J. (1996) Advanced Studies in Physical Education and Sport. Nelson: Cheltenham

Cashmore, E. (2008) Sport and Exercise Psychology: The Key Concepts (2^nd Ed.) Routledge: London.

Gadsdon, S. (2001) Psychology and Sport. Heinemann: Oxford.

Gill, A. (2014) Motivation [PPT] FdSc Sport Coaching, Chesterfield College, March 2014.

Gill, D. (2000) Psychological dynamics of Sport and Exercise. Human Kinetics: Illinois.

Green, R. G. (1996) Social Motivation, Companion Encyclopedia of Psychology (Volume 1). Routledge: London

Horn, T. (ed) (2008) Advances in Sport Psychology (3^rd Edition).  Human Kinetics:, Leeds

Rubin, K.H., & Rose-Krasnor, L. (1992).  Handbook of Social Development: A Lifespan Perspective. Plenum Press: New York.

Weinberg, R. & Gould, D. (2011) Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (5^th Edition). Human Kinetics: Leeds.

The History of Sport Psychology

History of Psychology

Before delving into its history, we should identify what is meant by the term psychology. 

When reading around the history of psychology, literature often refers to the science of psychology, which is the empirical, objective study of the domain concerned with behaviour and mental life (Wertheimer, 2012).  However, we know that the contemporary outlook identifies psychology as a subjective discipline which seeks to help individuals overcome negative feelings and problems relating to social interaction.  

In the modern day, the field of psychology is so vast, that Maher (2011) defines it as:

‘A continuum ranging from working with individuals suffering from mental illness (abnormal) to teams striving to fulfil the far reaches of their potential (super-normal)’

Ultimately, psychologists are seeking to find out more about human thought processes and how this affects their behaviour, although their methodology and reasoning may differ (scientific or unscientific). 

Even though the notion of psychology did not begin to take form until the nineteenth century, thoughts and concepts, which are now considered to be psychological, date back to the Ancient World.  For example, in Ancient Greece individuals attempted to account for events attributed human feelings and emotions onto nature – known as anthropomorphism (Hergenhahn,, 2000).  At a similar time, Siddhartha Gautama (also referred to the as Buddha, and founder of the Buddhist movement) was teaching a theory which considered motivation, perception, sensation and the nature of the mind (Hergenhahn, 2000).

These concepts can be traced back through time, but it wasn't until the mid-nineteenth century that psychology emerged as an area of study, due to the work of European pioneers in the field.  Most notably, the publication of Fechner’s Elements of Psychophysics (1860) was the first publication which detailed how to measure mental qualities.  Shortly after this in 1879, Wundt founded the world’s first experimental psychology laboratory (Schultz & Schultz, 2011).

Since then, much research has been conducted on many different psychological concepts, with some of the most influential psychological research being conducted in the twentieth century and shaping the way we currently we view the subject. For example, Skinner’s work on behaviourism, and Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.  Psychologists continue to build on this work, and look at how the human cognitive process affects our behaviour.

Evolution of Sport Psychology

Whilst identifying what psychology is above, we discovered that it’s an extremely broad field, and sport psychology is no different, which is shown by the lack of precision in Kremer’s definition of sport psychology shown below.

‘Psychological  theory and methods are applied to understand and improve sporting performance’ 

(Kremer & Moran, 2008)

Weinberg & Gould (2011), however, go on to explain that sport psychologists seek to understand how performance is affected by psychological factors, and to find out how participation in sport affects an athletes psychological development. 

The first sport psychology experiment was undertaken by Norman Triplett in 1897 and was based upon social facilitation, but it wasn’t until 1920 that the first sport specific research laboratory opened in Berlin (Weinberg & Gould, 2011). Even though the early work undertaken by Triplett was successful, it is only in recent decades that sport psychology has evolved and is now considered an important component for the success of elite athletes.  Looking to the United States, as we often do in matters relating to sport, it wasn’t until 1985 that the United States Olympic Committee recruited a psychologist (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).

Since then, psychology has begun to play a more dominant role in elite sport, and is now considered to be a key element to the success of sportspeople and teams.  Sport and exercise psychologists have a variety of roles, and the way they work with athletes and teams varies greatly dependent upon their needs.  The posts in this blog will consider several key concepts  in sport and exercise psychology (personality, motivation, arousal, anxiety and stress) and their effect upon performance.

References:

Hergenhahn, B. R. (2000) An Introduction to the Brief History of Psychology. Wadsworth: Belmont.

Kremer, J & Moran, A. P. (2008)  Pure Sport: Practical Sport Psychology.  Routledge: East Sussex.

Maher, C. (2011)  School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs and Procedures.  Routledge: London.

Schultz, D. P. & Schultz, S. L. (2011) A History of Modern Psychology (10th Edition) Wadsworth: Belmont.

Weinberg, R. & Gould, D. (2011) Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (5^th Edition). Human Kinetics: Leeds.

Wertheimer, M. (2012) A Brief History of Psychology (5th Edition) Psychology Press: New York.