Motivation

What is Motivation?

This post is going to look at motivation within sport and exercise, and how and why different individuals are motivated to partake.  Firstly, we must define what is meant by the term motivation. 

‘Hypothetical construct used to describe the internal and/or external forces that produce initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behaviour’

 (Vallerand & Thrill, 1993)

Whilst it is difficult to define such a complex concept, the definition above by Vallerand & Thrill successfully identifies what we should expect to see from motivated behaviour.  This is supported by Green who interprets motivation as forces that initiate, direct and sustain behaviour (1996).  Motivation directs our behaviour towards achieving an end goal, producing a link between action and outcome (Cashmore, 2008).

We have already established that most aspects of psychology take three views: trait, state and interactional, and the same can be said for motivation.  The participant centred approach (trait) takes the view that motivated behaviour is due individual characteristics, and therefore an athlete has the predisposition to show motivation in any situation.  The situation centred approach, however states that motivation is determined solely by the environment (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  For example, an athlete may be highly motivated in a competitive sporting environment, but not in a classroom.   Whilst we know that some individuals do excel in certain areas, and therefore they’re more motivated to be successful, it’s clear that both the trait and state approach are too simplistic and for that reason are not endorsed by psychologists.  The diagram below models the interactional view, which is the most widely endorsed approach, and it shows how motivation is thought to be a result of the interaction between personal and situational factors. 

Breaking down the definition from Vallerand & Thrill, motivation is a combination of internal and external forces.  In other words, it’s a combination of the drive from within yourself to be successful, and external factors.  Factors affecting motivation can therefore be separated into two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is the drive from your inner self to be successful, because of the enjoyment or pride you feel when performing or improving your skill level, whilst extrinsic motivation is gained from rewards offered by an external source, and could be either tangible or intangible (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  A tangible reward is something physical, for example a trophy or cash reward.  An intangible reward could be praise from, or fulfilling the expectations, of a coach or family member.  It is important to note that rewards do reinforce positive behaviour, but tangible rewards should be limited as the performer will become less interested in performing the skill or sport, and perform just for the reward.

Achievement Motivation

The importance of motivation in sport can be linked directly to an athlete’s desire to be successful, as without that desire the chances of success are seriously reduced – and this is known as achievement motivation.  Atkinson described an achievement situation as ‘one in which someone expects their performance to be evaluated’ (Gadsdon, 2001), which in sport we commonly call a competition.  Achievement motivation is described by Gill (2000) as 

‘a person’s orientations to strive for task success, persist in the face of failure, and experience pride in accomplishments’

Achievement motivation is more closely examined by McClelland & Atkinson in their Need Achievement Theory, which considers five factors in order to identify an athlete as either having a need to achieve, or a need to avoid failure (Beashel & Taylor, 1996).  Gill (2000) defines the motive to achieve success as the capacity to experience pride in accomplishments, and the motive to avoid failure as the capacity to experience shame in failure. 

Athletes with a high need to achieve enjoy competitive and challenging situations, and even though that means the rate of success is low, they are more motivated to be successful and don’t fear being evaluated.  They also place a higher value on success and therefore strive to reach it.  Those with a need to avoid failure personality are not as motivated to challenge themselves, and enter situations where they have a low responsibility and there is either a low chance of them failing, or certainty that they will fail (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).  For example, if a 100m school champion competed against a national standard runner, it is almost certain they will lose, but they will not blamed as the cause of failure.   They also tend to focus on the negative feelings associated with failure (such as shame and embarrassment) rather than considering the other outcome of being successful, therefore focussing on avoiding failure as pose to achieving.  Athletes with a high need achievement are more likely to be successful because they actively seek situations in which they want to be successful, unlike those with a low need achievement motivation, who tend to avoid competitive situations completely.

The model below shows how the five components of Need Achievement Theory interact to produce a resultant behaviour.

Need Achievement Theory

(Image taken from Gill, 2014)

Competence Motivation Theory

A theory which attributes intrinsic factors to high motivation is the Competence Motivation Theory by Harter (1978).  Firstly, competence is explained by White as the ability to interact effectively with the environment (Rubin & Rose-Krasnor, 1992).  Harter states that competence motivation is dependent on how the performer views the situations - For example, is it interesting, do they find it challenging, do they think they’ll be successful?  These factors contribute to the performers perceived competence and control over the task, and they are drawn to situations where they feel a high competence and have self-belief in mastery of the task (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).

Competence Motivation Theory

(Image taken from Gill, 2014)

Success at a task creates a positive feeling of enjoyment and pride which reinforces your competence, and the pleasure gained from this success increases the performers levels of intrinsic motivation.  In contrast, if the performer doesn’t feel confident in mastering the task, they feel negative feelings such as anxiety or shame, which will decrease their motivation to attempt the task.  Therefore, competence motivation theory states perceived confidence and competence of the pending task affects your motivation to complete it.

Attribution Theory

The Attribution Theory, which was popularised by Weiner (1985, 1986), attributes a cause to an event, which in this case is success or failure.  Weinberg & Gould (2011) state that every explanation of success or failure can be placed in one of three categories: stability, locus of causality, and locus of control.  The outcome of either success or failure, and the category is which the attribution sits will have an effect on expectations of future success, and therefore levels of motivation. 

Attribution Theory

(Image taken from Gill, 2014)

The table above explains the results of different attributions – If success is attributed to a stable factor then your motivation would be high as you could expect to achieve it again, on the flipside if failure is attributed to a stable factor (example, low ability) you will be less motivated.  Alternatively, if you attribute success to an unstable factor (e.g., luck) then you shouldn’t expect it to happen again and motivation may decrease.  If success is attributed to an internal cause (e.g., your ability) or to something that you perceive to be in your control, then you are going to feel pride and there will be an increased expectation of success in the future.  On the other hand if you attribute failure to these factors, you may feel shame and there will be decreased levels of motivation. 

Achievement Goal Theory

It is widely thought that individuals can be motivated by the setting of goals – not just in sport but across all areas.  Achievement Goal theory concerns two different goals: outcome and task. 

If an athlete is said to be task goal orientated they are striving to improve relative to their own abilities over a short period of time.  In comparison, when working towards an outcome goal you are competing against others, and is usually a long term target (Weinberg & Gould, 2011). For example, winning an Olympic gold medal is an outcome goal as you will have the best performance compared to other athletes, but this is not something you achieve overnight, you will probably have worked towards many smaller goals to improve the level of your performance – these are task specific goals

This is an example of an elite athlete striving to complete both types of goal, but many athletes will only be working towards one or the other, which is dependent on their reasons for partaking and their level of motivation.   Task orientated performers are often more successful because the outcome isn’t dependant on factors out of their control (for example, other competitors) making them more persistent and motivated.  They also have a lower fear of failure because they are competing against themselves.

Achievement Goal Theory

(Image taken from Gill, 2014)

You must be motivated to reach the goals you set, which we assume are going to lead to a more efficient performance, therefore making you more successful.  Some people show a consistent desire to achieve highly across all areas, whereas some are only motivated to be successful dependent upon the area, or the environment therefore achievement goal theory is an interactionist theory.

References:

Beashel, P. & Taylor, J. (1996) Advanced Studies in Physical Education and Sport. Nelson: Cheltenham

Cashmore, E. (2008) Sport and Exercise Psychology: The Key Concepts (2^nd Ed.) Routledge: London.

Gadsdon, S. (2001) Psychology and Sport. Heinemann: Oxford.

Gill, A. (2014) Motivation [PPT] FdSc Sport Coaching, Chesterfield College, March 2014.

Gill, D. (2000) Psychological dynamics of Sport and Exercise. Human Kinetics: Illinois.

Green, R. G. (1996) Social Motivation, Companion Encyclopedia of Psychology (Volume 1). Routledge: London

Horn, T. (ed) (2008) Advances in Sport Psychology (3^rd Edition).  Human Kinetics:, Leeds

Rubin, K.H., & Rose-Krasnor, L. (1992).  Handbook of Social Development: A Lifespan Perspective. Plenum Press: New York.

Weinberg, R. & Gould, D. (2011) Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (5^th Edition). Human Kinetics: Leeds.